Gender Inequality in the Labour Market

Gender Inequality in the Labour Market

Women in paid employment

As Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain until the later part of the twentieth century paid work in western societies was predominantly male dominated. According to Fulcher and Scott (2007) this situation is changing with more and more women moving into paid employment, this is described as the feminisation of work. The gender gap in employment rates has almost disappeared due to the rising employment of women and the declining employment of men (Fulcher and Scott 2007). As Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain does this mean that men are doing more domestic work? Are these employment rates all that they seem? This article will discuss gender inequality within the labour market.

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Occupational segregation of women 

As Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain many jobs are considered to be ‘women’s work’. As Fulcher and Scott (2007) explain women tend to be drawn into occupations which involve emotional labour, such as nursing, teaching and secretarial roles as these are seen as an extension of their caring role within the household. Whereas men tend to occupy positions which are more skilled and convey more power such as security and management positions (Abercrombie, et al 2000). As Fulcher and Scott (2007, p. 175) cite “unfortunately for them, it is these occupations that are the lowest paid”.

Part Time Employment

As Petit and Hook (2009) explain the amount of women in part time employment contributes to their concentration into particular occupations and jobs. According to Giddens and Sutton (2013) part time work is often favoured by women as it offers more flexibility and means women are able to balance work and family obligations whereas they would otherwise forgo employment. However as Drew, et al (2002) explain part time work has disadvantages such as, low pay, job insecurity, lack of training opportunities and little or no chance for promotion.

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The Professional Market and gender inequality

As Abercrombie, et al (2000) explain many of the higher professions, such as doctors are staffed by men. Witz (1991 as cited in Abercrombie, et al 2000) found that there were six male employed professionals for every one female employed professional. This shows that patriarchal power was used to exclude women from higher professions and ensure occupations filled by women were subordinate for example nurses (Abercrombie, et al 2000). However as Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain a more recent trend is that more women are moving into higher paying professional positions and go on to say that young women with good qualifications are just as likely to gain lucrative jobs as their male counterparts. Colomo-Palacios (2012) supports this by explaining that statistics gathered in 2010 show that the gender gap in employment within the European Union is decreasing as more women have gained academic and professional qualifications and are actively pursuing working careers. Colomo-Palacios (2012) believes that better child care facilities and more flexible working arrangements have all contributed to women’s progress in the work place. However as Giddens and Sutton (2013, p. 274) cite “yet this progress at the top of the occupational structure is offset by the enormous increase in the number of women in low-paid, part-time jobs within the rapidly expanding service sector”.

[women in the labour market 2013] n.d. [image online] Available at:< https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/articles/womeninthelabourmarket/2013-09-25>[Accessed 14 February 2017]

Women in male dominated occupations

As Wright (2016) explains some sectors seen as being traditionally male have been resistant to change when it comes to gender balance, with women only accounting for twelve percent of those working in construction and only twenty two percent in transport and storage. Prescott (2012) supports this by explaining that the same is true of the science and engineering industries with few women working within these sectors. Prescott (2012) believes there are many reasons for this including that stereotypes play an important role in personal choice, such as the typical view that men are better at maths, this perpetuates gender divisions within schools and leads to many women choosing not to pursue careers within these sectors as they believe they are bad at maths. As Brooks (2014) explains in his article for the Huffington post women who wish to work in traditionally male roles have a better chance of being hired if they show masculine traits such as assertiveness and independence whereas more feminine traits such as warmth and supportiveness were much less likely to land them the job. Available to read at http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/08/12/women-act-like-men-masculine-job-study_n_5671415.html

Men in female dominated occupations

Occupations such as teaching, nursing and midwifery are mainly female dominated for example in America ninety one percent of registered nurses are women (Prescott 2012). However as Prescott (2012) explains that this becomes disproportionate at senior level positions with more men occupying these roles, for example within the NHS it was found that male nurses achieve senior positions much quicker than their female counterparts.

[male nurses worldwide] n.d. [image online] Available at:< https://realmanswork.wordpress.com/2012/05/05/male-nurses-worldwide/>[Accessed 18 February 2017]

The gender wage gap

As Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain the average pay of employed women is still below that of men the gap has narrowed over time but still remains. As the UK Commission for Employment and Skills (2015) found that women working full time were paid less than men in ninety percent of sectors, with male workers being paid on average nineteen percent more than women, however in the insurance and financial sectors women were the worst affected as they can be paid up to forty percent less than men. The report is available to read at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/research-finds-women-paid-less-than-men-in-90-of-sectors

why is there are gender wage gap?

As Giddens and Sutton (2013) explain there are many reasons for the wage gap such as many women take time off to preform caring work such as raising families and occupational segregation as more women are represented within the poorly paying job sectors such as catering, cashiering and cleaning. The wage gap has narrowed over time since the introduction of the national minimum wage in 1999 but still remains (Giddens and Sutton 2013). As Abercrombie, et al (2000) explain being on the wrong side of the gender wage gap can have consequences such as a poorer quality of life and less long term life success.

Conclusion

Gender inequality is rife within the labour market, whilst advances have been made with more women entering top professions and gaining degrees there is still a significant inequality which is seen by the persistent wage gap between men and women.

Reference List

Abercrombie, N., Warde, A., Deem, R., Penna, S., Soothill, K., Urry, J., Sayer, A. and Walby, S. (2000) Contemporary British Society. 3^rd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Brooks, C. (2014) Women Still need to act like Men if they want ‘Masculine’ Jobs, Study Finds. The Huffington Post. [online] 26 September. Available at:< http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/08/12/women-act-like-men-masculine-job-study_n_5671415.html>[Accessed 18 February 2017]

Colomo-Palacios, R, ed. (2012) Professional Advancements and Management Trends in the IT Sector. [e-book] Hershey USA: IGI Global. Available at: Google Books<https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8qSeBQAAQBAJ&dq=professional+jobs+and+gender+inequality&source=gbs_navlinks_s>[Accessed 15 February 2017]

Drew, E., Emerek, R. and Mahon, E. (2002) Women, Work and the Family in Europe. [e-book] London: Routledge. Available at: Google Books<https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nomFAgAAQBAJ&dq=disadvantages+of+part+time+work+women&source=gbs_navlinks_s>[Accessed 14 February 2017]

Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (2007) Sociology. 3^rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Giddens, A. and Sutton, P. (2013) Sociology. 7^th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Pettit, B. and Hook, J. (2009) Gendered Trade-offs: Women, Family and Workplace Inequality in Twenty-One Countries. [e-book] New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Available at: Google Books<https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=N_8FYe0bIm8C&dq=gender+inequality+in+the+workplace+occupational+segregation&source=gbs_navlinks_s>[Accessed 14 February 2017]

Prescott, J, ed. (2012) Gendered Occupational Differences in Science, Engineering, and Technology Careers. [e-book] Hershey USA: IGI Global. Available at: Google Books<https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W-AAvNc2q3YC&dq=women+in+male+dominated+occupations&source=gbs_navlinks_s>[Accessed 18 February 2017]

UK Commission for Employment and Skills (2015) Equality, Labour market reform and Employment. [online] London: HMSO. Available at:< https://www.gov.uk/government/news/research-finds-women-paid-less-than-men-in-90-of-sectors>[Accessed 18 February 2017]

Wright, T. (2016) Gender and Sexuality in Male-Dominated Occupations: Women Working in Construction and Transport. [e-book] USA: Springer. Available at: Google Books<https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPADAAAQBAJ&dq=women+in+male+dominated+occupations&source=gbs_navlinks_s>[Accessed 18 February 2017]

Theories of Masculinity

Theories of Masculinity

Masculinity has it been overlooked?

As Haralambos and Holburn (2013) explain since the rise of feminism some male sociologists have argued that men appear invisible when it comes to studies of sex and gender, as there are very few studies on masculinity. This article will explore and evaluate different theories of masculinity.

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Available at:<http://mkculture.blogspot.co.uk/2009/07/magic-mirrors-part-3-future-lovers-ride.html>[Accessed 28 January 2017]

Masculinities R.W Connell

Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) conducted studies into how masculinity is changing in contemporary societies by looking at the variety of different meanings masculinity can have and found the hegemonic masculinity to be the dominant form.

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Hegemonic Masculinity

the dominant masculine ideal

As Punch, et al (2013) explain hegemony is a term used to describe the ideal forms of masculinity and femininity. According to Fulcher and Scott (2011) the dominant ideology for masculinity emphasises physical toughness, aggression, competition and reason over emotion. Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) explains that males who fail to live up to this ideology can be put down by other males by being called names like, wimp, push over and mummy’s boys. Connell (2005) supports this by saying there are specific gender relations of dominance and subordination between different groups of men specifically men who fail to meet this ideology.

Summary

Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013, p.153) cites

“men still remain dominant in social life, but male dominance is no longer automatically accepted”.

As Haralambos and Holburn (2013) explain Connells theories are backed up by detailed empirical evidence, but don’t explain the anxiety and confusion surrounding masculinity.

The making of men M. Ghaill

Ghaill (1994, as cited in Giddens and Sutton 2013) built on Connells work and conducted a study to see how schools actively create a different range of masculinities. As cited by  Giddens and Sutton (2013, p.644)

 “His findings revealed that the school itself is an institution characterised by gendered and heterosexual patterns”.

Male dominance in schools

As Swain (2005) explains that schooling gives boys a number of different opportunities to construct different kinds of masculinity and argues that boys peer groups have a powerful influence upon this. Ghaill (1994) himself supports this by saying in English secondary schools masculine perspectives are dominant with even male teachers perpetuating the dominant male personality.

The four types of masculinity in schools

Ghaill (1994, as cited in Giddens and Sutton 2013) found four main types of masculinity in the school setting, the first of these being the macho lads, which are a group of white working class lads who defy the school authority and disdainful of students deemed as achievers. The second group as Ghaill (1994) explains being academic achievers who have a positive orientation towards the school curriculum, and are stereotyped by the macho lads and even some teachers. The third group being the new enterprisers, these are the boys who gravitate towards subjects like business studies and computer science as Ghaill (1994) explains. As Gahill (1994) says the fourth and final group are known as the real Englishmen, these are middle class boys who view themselves as being superior and  give the impression of effortless academic achievement.

Summary

As Kidd and Teagle (2012) explain Ghaill’s theory identifies diversity in male roles and opens up the possibility for fluidity, choice and a wider range of options amongst men.

Cultural concepts of masculinity D. Gilmore

Gilmore (1990, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) studied the way masculinity is defined within a range of different societies and cultures, and found that in most societies masculinity is defined by three typical features.

[man the protector] n.d. [image online] Available at:< http://www.leadingmenonly.com/man-protector>[Accessed 28 January 2017]

The three typical features of masculinity

Gilmore (1990, as cited in Harlambos and Holburn) explains that the first feature of masculinity is man the impregnator, as they are expected to impregnate women and take initiative when it comes to the dating process. Gilmore (1990, as cited in Harlambos and Holburn 2013) says that the second feature is man the provider, as after impregnation men are expected to provide for themselves and their families. As Gilmore (1990) says the third and final feature is man the protector, as men must protect their families from other men and any other threats that may arise.

Summary

According to Haralambos and Holburn (2013) many feminists have criticized Gilmore’s  research for his claim that men protect and provide for women, however his research does succeed in showing that culture has strong influences on the ideology of masculinity.

Conclusion

Each theory has made valid contributions to the studies of masculinity, and shows the hegemonic male as being the dominant male ideology, leading to a crisis of masculinity for some men, as Ghaill (1994) says about the macho lads found in schools. Manzoor (2016) supports this in his article for the telegraph about the recent masculinity crisis and is available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/are-men-in-crisis-dont-believe-all-that-you-read/

Reference list

Connell, R. (2005) Masculinities. [e-book] Cambridge: Polity Press. Available at: Google Books Here[Accessed 28 January 2017]

Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (2011) Sociology. 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Ghaill, M. (1994) The Making of Men: Sexualities and Schooling. [e-book] London: McGraw-Hill Education. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Giddens, A. and Sutton, P. (2013) Sociology. 7^th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

Gilmore, D. (1990) Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. [e-book] Connecticut: Yale University Press. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Haralambos, M. and Holburn, M. (2013) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 8^th ed. London: Harper Collins Publishers

Kidd, W. and Teagle, A. (2012) Culture and Identity. [e-book] London: Palgrave Macmillian. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Manzoor, S. (2016) Are men in crisis? Don’t believe all that you read. The Telegraph. [online] 18 May. Available Here [Accessed 28 January 17]

Punch, S., Marsh, I., Keating, M. and Harden, J. (2013) Sociology: Making Sense of Soceity. 5^th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited

Swain, J. (2005). Masculinities in Education. In: Connell, R., Hearn, J., and Kimmel, M, eds. (2005) Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinity. [e-book] California: Sage. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Feminist explanations for Gender Inequality article

Feminist theories on gender inequality

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So what is gender inequality?

Gender inequality is the unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender (Giddens and Sutton 2013). This article will explore three different areas in which feminists believe this inequality is fuelled.

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Biological differences, a radical feminist view


The radical feminist Shulamith Firestone (1970, as cited in Giddens and Sutton 2013) believed that gender inequalities arise directly from biological differences between men and women.

What are biological differences?

Biological differences include hormones, brain size and genetics (Punch, et al 2013). This theory is known as essentialism or biological determinism (Giddens and Sutton 2013).

The Solution?

Firestone (1970, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) argued that women are disadvantaged by their biology, childbirth and breastfeeding having the most serious consequences as during this time women become dependent on males for physical survival. To combat this Firestone (1970 as cited in Donovan 2012) believed effective birth control would help loosen the chains of women’s slavery, and went on to suggest that technology like test tube fertilisation would free women from their dependence on men and end gender role divisions attached to child birth and rearing.

Biological reductionism

Firestone’s theory explains all forms of stratification, yet has been criticized for its inability to explain variations in women’s status in different societies (Haralambos and Holburn 2013). Some critics view radical feminist theories as being biologically reductionist, as they reduce the complexity of gender inequality down to simple biological differences (Giddens and Sutton 2013).

[liberal-feminism] n.d.[image online] Available at:< http://feministtheory.weebly.com/liberal-feminism.html>[Accessed 15 January 2017]

Socialisation, a liberal feminist view

Liberal feminists take a different view and believe gender inequality is perpetuated by social and cultural attitudes and highlight the importance of gender socialisation as creating gender inequality (Kendall 2016).

So what is gender socialisation?

Gender socialisation refers to the learning of gender roles through various agencies such as the family and the mass media (Giddens and Sutton 2013). Primary socialization starts from an early age within the family, for example pink for girls and blue for boys (Fulcher and Scott 2011). Secondary socialisation includes influences from agencies like schools and the mass media which embody the stereotypical representations of males and females (Giddens and Sutton 2013).

How does this create gender inequality ?

Ann Oakley (1981, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) traced the changing status of women in British society since the industrial revolution. Oakley (1981, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013, p.112) claims that

 “the most important and enduring consequence of industrialisation for women has been the emergence of the modern role of housewife as the dominant mature feminine  role”.

 This can be seen by the toys available for boys and girls, girls toys are usually dolls and kitchens, perpetuating the housewife role from a young age (Oakley, 2005).

Liberal Feminism contributions

Liberal feminists have made many contributions to the advancement of women, such as UK legal advances like the  equal pay act (1970), however critics say that liberal feminists are unsuccessful in dealing with the root cause of gender inequality (Giddens and Sutton 2013).

[Barbara-Kruger-your-body-is-a-battleground] n.d.[image online] Available at:< http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/postfeminism/Theorizing-Feminism-and-Postmodernity.html>[Accessed 15 January 2017]

Language, a postmodern feminist view

Postmodernist feminist Helene Cixous (1981 as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) believes that language is male dominated, or as Cixous calls it phallocentric..Cixous (1993 as cited in Haralabos and Holburn 2013, p.124) is quoted as saying

“Everything is word, everything is only word…we must grab culture by the word, as it seizes us in its word, in its language…Indeed, as soon as we are, we are born into language and language speaks to us, language dictates its law”. Cixous, quoted in Haste, 1993.

Male dominated Language

Supposed gender neutral terms such as ‘he’ and ‘man’ actually have gender specific meanings in sentences such as ‘he drank the water’ (Saul 2010). These terms when used in sentences like ‘man breastfeeds his young’ seem ill formed as the term ‘man’ has a gender specific meaning (Litosseliti 2014). Feminists argue that the use of such terms contributes to the invisibility of women (Saul 2010).

Gender specific occupational terms

Feminists argue that gender specific occupational words such as ‘manageress’ perpetuate gender inequality further as they suggest the idea that maleness is the norm and women filling these jobs are somehow deviant versions of managers or other job roles (Saul 2010).

Postmodern feminism

Postmodern feminism highlights the importance of the male dominated language, they seek to deconstruct male language and masculine views of the world to replace it with a more open and fluid language which reflects women’s experiences (Giddens and Sutton 2013).

Feminism and gender inequality

Each different feminist group has different explanations for how gender inequality is perpetuated. Radical feminists believe biology is to blame whereas liberal and postmodern feminists believe cultural and social aspects are to blame. They have all contributed to gaining equality for women.

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[more women #ELLEFeminism] n.d.[image online] Available at:< https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEKo22ryWxM>[Accessed 15 January 2017]

Reference list

Donovan, J. (2012) Feminist Theory: The Intellectual Traditions. 4^th ed. [e-book] London: A&C Black.

Available at: Google Books- Here [Accessed 14 January 2017]

Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (2011) Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Giddens, A. and Sutton, P. (2013) Sociology. 7^th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

Haralambos, M. and Holburn, M. (2013) Haralambos & Holburn Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 8^th ed. London: Harper Collins Publishers

Kendall, D. (2016) Sociology in Our Times. 11^th ed. [e-book] Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Available at: Google Books-Here [Accessed 13 January 2017]

Litosseliti, L. (2014) Gender and Language Theory and Practice. [e-book] London: Routledge. Available at: Google Books-Here [Accessed 14 January 2017

Oakley, A. (2005) The Ann Oakley Reader: Gender, Women and Social Science. [e-book] Bristol: Policy Press. Available at: Google Books-Here [Accessed 14 January 2017]

Punch, S., Harden, J., Marsh, I. and Keating, M. (2013) Sociology: Making Sense of Society. 5^th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited

Saul, J. (2010) Feminist Philosophy of Language. [online] Plato.stanford.edu. Available at: Here [Accessed 15 January 2017]