Theories of Masculinity

Theories of Masculinity

Masculinity has it been overlooked?

As Haralambos and Holburn (2013) explain since the rise of feminism some male sociologists have argued that men appear invisible when it comes to studies of sex and gender, as there are very few studies on masculinity. This article will explore and evaluate different theories of masculinity.

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Masculinities R.W Connell

Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) conducted studies into how masculinity is changing in contemporary societies by looking at the variety of different meanings masculinity can have and found the hegemonic masculinity to be the dominant form.

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Hegemonic Masculinity

the dominant masculine ideal

As Punch, et al (2013) explain hegemony is a term used to describe the ideal forms of masculinity and femininity. According to Fulcher and Scott (2011) the dominant ideology for masculinity emphasises physical toughness, aggression, competition and reason over emotion. Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) explains that males who fail to live up to this ideology can be put down by other males by being called names like, wimp, push over and mummy’s boys. Connell (2005) supports this by saying there are specific gender relations of dominance and subordination between different groups of men specifically men who fail to meet this ideology.

Summary

Connell (1995, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013, p.153) cites

“men still remain dominant in social life, but male dominance is no longer automatically accepted”.

As Haralambos and Holburn (2013) explain Connells theories are backed up by detailed empirical evidence, but don’t explain the anxiety and confusion surrounding masculinity.

The making of men M. Ghaill

Ghaill (1994, as cited in Giddens and Sutton 2013) built on Connells work and conducted a study to see how schools actively create a different range of masculinities. As cited by  Giddens and Sutton (2013, p.644)

 “His findings revealed that the school itself is an institution characterised by gendered and heterosexual patterns”.

Male dominance in schools

As Swain (2005) explains that schooling gives boys a number of different opportunities to construct different kinds of masculinity and argues that boys peer groups have a powerful influence upon this. Ghaill (1994) himself supports this by saying in English secondary schools masculine perspectives are dominant with even male teachers perpetuating the dominant male personality.

The four types of masculinity in schools

Ghaill (1994, as cited in Giddens and Sutton 2013) found four main types of masculinity in the school setting, the first of these being the macho lads, which are a group of white working class lads who defy the school authority and disdainful of students deemed as achievers. The second group as Ghaill (1994) explains being academic achievers who have a positive orientation towards the school curriculum, and are stereotyped by the macho lads and even some teachers. The third group being the new enterprisers, these are the boys who gravitate towards subjects like business studies and computer science as Ghaill (1994) explains. As Gahill (1994) says the fourth and final group are known as the real Englishmen, these are middle class boys who view themselves as being superior and  give the impression of effortless academic achievement.

Summary

As Kidd and Teagle (2012) explain Ghaill’s theory identifies diversity in male roles and opens up the possibility for fluidity, choice and a wider range of options amongst men.

Cultural concepts of masculinity D. Gilmore

Gilmore (1990, as cited in Haralambos and Holburn 2013) studied the way masculinity is defined within a range of different societies and cultures, and found that in most societies masculinity is defined by three typical features.

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The three typical features of masculinity

Gilmore (1990, as cited in Harlambos and Holburn) explains that the first feature of masculinity is man the impregnator, as they are expected to impregnate women and take initiative when it comes to the dating process. Gilmore (1990, as cited in Harlambos and Holburn 2013) says that the second feature is man the provider, as after impregnation men are expected to provide for themselves and their families. As Gilmore (1990) says the third and final feature is man the protector, as men must protect their families from other men and any other threats that may arise.

Summary

According to Haralambos and Holburn (2013) many feminists have criticized Gilmore’s  research for his claim that men protect and provide for women, however his research does succeed in showing that culture has strong influences on the ideology of masculinity.

Conclusion

Each theory has made valid contributions to the studies of masculinity, and shows the hegemonic male as being the dominant male ideology, leading to a crisis of masculinity for some men, as Ghaill (1994) says about the macho lads found in schools. Manzoor (2016) supports this in his article for the telegraph about the recent masculinity crisis and is available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/are-men-in-crisis-dont-believe-all-that-you-read/

Reference list

Connell, R. (2005) Masculinities. [e-book] Cambridge: Polity Press. Available at: Google Books Here[Accessed 28 January 2017]

Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (2011) Sociology. 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Ghaill, M. (1994) The Making of Men: Sexualities and Schooling. [e-book] London: McGraw-Hill Education. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Giddens, A. and Sutton, P. (2013) Sociology. 7^th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press

Gilmore, D. (1990) Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. [e-book] Connecticut: Yale University Press. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Haralambos, M. and Holburn, M. (2013) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 8^th ed. London: Harper Collins Publishers

Kidd, W. and Teagle, A. (2012) Culture and Identity. [e-book] London: Palgrave Macmillian. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]

Manzoor, S. (2016) Are men in crisis? Don’t believe all that you read. The Telegraph. [online] 18 May. Available Here [Accessed 28 January 17]

Punch, S., Marsh, I., Keating, M. and Harden, J. (2013) Sociology: Making Sense of Soceity. 5^th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited

Swain, J. (2005). Masculinities in Education. In: Connell, R., Hearn, J., and Kimmel, M, eds. (2005) Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinity. [e-book] California: Sage. Available at: Google Books Here [Accessed 28 January 2017]